| http://dbpedia.org/ontology/abstract
|
Een macehualli (meervoud: macehualtin) was … Een macehualli (meervoud: macehualtin) was bij de Azteken een persoon dat niet tot de oftewel de adel behoorde. Het woord macehualli komt uit het Nahuatl. Het is afgeleid van het werkwoord macehualo, en betekent "degene die werkt". Macehualtin konden door een succesvolle carrière in het leger tot de adelstand worden verheven. Andersom konden tipiltin door lafheid tijdens oorlogstijd of als straf wegens het begaan van een misdaad. De allerhoogste adellijke rangen waren echter alleen voor 'echte' tipiltin weggelegd. De macehualtin waren verantwoordelijk voor de productie en moesten het harde werk doen. Zij hadden veel privileges niet die edelen wel hadden, zo was het hen op straffe des doods verboden katoenen kleding te dragen, in plaats daarvan droegen zij kleding gemaakt van , en werden geschoold in de in plaats van de adellijke . Voor de Azteken was het standsverschil gerechtvaardigd daar zij geloofden dat de tipiltin afstammelingen waren van Quetzalcoatl, en dus een goddelijke voorouder hadden, terwijl de macehualtin door Quetzalcoatl waren vervaardigd met een pasta van bloed en botten. De macehualtin vormden niet de laagste stand in de Azteeks hiërarchie. Onder hen stonden de , personen die niet tot een calpulli behoorden.sonen die niet tot een calpulli behoorden.
, The mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaɬˈtin], si … The mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaɬˈtin], singular mācēhualli [maːseːˈwalːi]) were the commoner social class in Aztec society. The Aztec social class of the mācēhualtin were rural farmers, forming the majority of the commoners in the Aztec Empire. The mācēhualtin worked lands that belonged to the social unit of the calpolli called chinampas, with each family maintaining rights to the land so long as it did not lie fallow for more than two years. Within these lands, the rural mācēhualtin constructed small dams and terraces to increase their agricultural yield. Crops common to Mexican agriculture were grown on these plots, including maize, beans and squash. These projects were probably organized by the local communities and were not state led. From their produce and productivity, the mācēhualtin were required to pay tribute to the Aztec nobility. During the reign of Moctezuma II (1502–1520), they were banned from serving in the royal palaces, as this monarch widened the divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin. However, before his reign it was noted that there was some mobility, though uncommon, within the social classes. Those who moved up (through military deeds) and became pipiltin were called yāōtequihuah. Those who were brought down ranks in spite of birth status as pipiltin were called pillaquīztīltin (from pilli, noble and tlaquīzcāyōtl, the end of something). Macehualtin could also become or sell their children into slavery. This possibility for social mobility was relatively uncommon due to the locative view of the world held by the Aztecs. This point of view emphasized the idea that everyone and everything had a correct place in the world. It was almost a moral imperative to find one's place and conform to its requirements. This logic extended to social class, with the pipiltin being viewed as having trained to rule the rest of society, specifically made by the Aztec gods for this purpose, and the macehualtin being viewed as having been made to work for the benefit of society. Rituals, teachings, and many other aspects of Aztec society helped to reinforce this worldview. Inequality among the social classes was further reinforced by societal institutions such as a differential set of laws for the commoners and those of the upper class. This differential set of laws was harsher towards the nobility than towards the commoners for a comparable offense. As Aztec society was in part centered on warfare, every Aztec male received some sort of basic military training from an early age. Typically by the time the child reached three years of age, the boy would begin to take simple instruction at the hands of his father on the tasks expected of men, no matter what social class they fell into. The only extremely slim possibility of possible upwards social mobility for mācēhualtin was through military achievement. The taking of captives (māltin [ˈmaːltin], singular mālli) marked an important transition into status as a full warrior, was the way for soldiers to move up the social ladder, and it continued to be a source of honor throughout a man's tenure as a warrior. Failure to take captives or perform well in battle later in life would be a source of dishonor for the warriors. While this would negatively impact warriors who were mācēhualtin, it would be a worse social blow for members of the nobility, although not as materially damaging. The mācēhualtin children attended the telpochcalli or "House of Youths" beginning at fifteen years of age. This was a school for both boys and girls, but the girls and boys learned separately. In the telpochcalli, the young men learned martial arts and other aspects of Aztec warfare. They spent a great deal of time engaged in physical labor around the school and around the community in order to build the young men's strength. Some activities such as hauling firewood eventually took the form of a test of physical prowess as larger and larger loads of firewood were given to the young men; such youths would have to face greater burdens when they took to the battlefield. While the young men prepared to become warriors for the Aztec Empire, the young Aztec women attended the cuicalco or "House of Song", a subdivision of the telpochcalli. Here they learned ritual arts like dance and song. Divisions based on gender prominently affected children among the mācēhualtin. An emphasis on gender divisions began at birth, not just with schooling. Some early rituals differed between newborn boys and newborn girls. For the male children, symbolic actions like giving the umbilical cord to warriors to bury in fields where battles might take place emphasized their role as future warriors. For the female children, symbolic actions like burying the umbilical cord near the hearth emphasized the female role in the home. After the Spanish conquest, the Nahuatl word mācēhualli was adopted in colonial Spanish as macehual, and was used all over New Spain as a synonym for "commoner," "subject," and "native."m for "commoner," "subject," and "native."
, Macehualli (Nahuatl mācēhualli, Plural: mā … Macehualli (Nahuatl mācēhualli, Plural: mācēhualtin) war bei den Azteken und ihren Nahuatl sprechenden Nachbarn die Bezeichnung für die freien Bauern, die den Hauptteil der Bevölkerung bildeten. Die Etymologie der Bezeichnung ist dunkel, eine Verbindung mit dem Begriff ma’cēhualli, Verdienst, ist wegen der unterschiedlichen Lautung ausgeschlossen. Die Macehualtin hatten das Nutzungsrecht über ein Stück Land. Sie waren zum Kriegsdienst verpflichtet und konnten durch Verdienste im Krieg zu Adligen werden. Gegen Ende der Aztekenzeit lebte ein Großteil der Macehualtin in Tenochtitlán nicht mehr von der Landwirtschaft, sondern vom Handwerk oder Kleinhandel. Heutzutage wird der Begriff auch als Ethnonym für die Nahua bzw. von den meisten Gruppen der Nahua als Eigenbezeichnung verwendet. Ausgesprochen und geschrieben wird es in verschiedenen Varianten, so z. B. Maseuali, Maseualli, Maswoal, Mösiehuali, Spanisch Macehual, Mehrzahl Macehuales. Das Nahua-Wort ist auch in andere indigene Sprachen in Mexiko übergegangen, in denen es ebenfalls als Selbstbezeichnung von der bäuerlichen Bevölkerung verwendet wird, so z. B. im Mayathan: Máasewalo'ob oder Macehualoob (Maya-Bauern von Yucatán).der Macehualoob (Maya-Bauern von Yucatán).
, Un « macehualli » (pl. « macehualtin » ; s … Un « macehualli » (pl. « macehualtin » ; s'orthographie également sans H) est un mot nahuatl désignant, dans la société aztèque, un membre de la classe sociale la plus basse hormis celle des esclaves. Ils ne bénéficiaient pas des mêmes privilèges que les familles de dignitaires (« tetecuhtin » et « pipiltin »), les négociants (« pochteca »), les prêtres, les militaires ni les artisans (« tolteca », « » et « »). Les macehualtin devaient à l'État aztèque le service militaire, un tribut et la participation aux travaux collectifs. Ils pouvaient posséder des biens, se marier avec des personnes libres et avoir des enfants libres.sonnes libres et avoir des enfants libres.
, En la sociedad azteca, los macehualli (o m … En la sociedad azteca, los macehualli (o macehuame, en plural) eran la clase social que estaba por encima de los esclavos y jerárquicamente estaban por debajo de los nobles. Los macehualtin rendían servicio militar, pagaban impuestos y trabajaban en obras colectivas. Como los esclavos, también podían poseer bienes, casarse con personas libres, tener hijos libres, teniendo una relativa libertad. Tenían derecho a poseer una parcela de tierra siempre y cuando la cultivasen, la cual podrían heredar sus hijos si estos de igual forma la trabajaban. Lo que no podían hacer era enajenarla o darla en prenda de otro bien, pues en realidad eran propietarios por segunda vez de la parcela.opietarios por segunda vez de la parcela.
, Mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], tunggal … Mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], tunggal mācēhualli [maːseːˈwalli]) adalah rakyat jelata di peradaban Aztek. Orang-orang yang tergolong ke dalam kelas sosial mācēhualtin adalah para petani di pedesaan yang merupakan mayoritas rakyat jelata di Aztek. Mācēhualtin menggarap tanah yang dimiliki oleh satuan sosial yang disebut chinampa. Tanaman-tanaman yang dipanen oleh para petani ini adalah jagung, kacang dan labu. Mācēhualtin diwajibkan membayar upeti dari hasil panen mereka kepada bangsawan Aztek. Pada masa kekuasaan Moctezuma II (1502–1520), mereka dilarang bekerja di istana kerajaan, sehingga jurang di antara kelompok bangsawan pipiltin dan macehualtin pun melebar. Sebelumnya, terdapat beberapa rakyat jelata yang bisa menjadi pipiltin, walaupun hal ini jarang terjadi. Mereka yang berhasil naik derajat disebut yaotequihua. Sementara itu, mereka yang turun derajat meskipun pernah terlahir sebagai pipiltin dijuluki pillaquistiltin. Kemungkinan untuk naik atau turun derajat sendiri sangat kecil karena orang-orang Aztek berkeyakinan bahwa setiap orang telah ditempatkan di dunia sesuai dengan takdirnya.empatkan di dunia sesuai dengan takdirnya.
, Os mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], sing … Os mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], singular mācēhualli [maːseːˈwalli]) eram a classe social mais comum no Império Asteca. Esta classe asteca era formada por agricultores rurais, formando a maioria dos plebeus do império. Os macahualtin trabalhavam em terras que pertenciam à unidade social dos calpulli, denominada chinampas, com cada família mantendo os direitos à terra desde que não ficasse no local por mais de dois anos. Dentro dessas terras, os mācēhualtin construíam pequenas represas e terraços para aumentar seu rendimento agrícola. Culturas comuns à agricultura asteca eram cultivadas nesses lotes, como milho, feijão e abóbora. Estes cultivos provavelmente eram organizados pelas comunidades locais e não eram liderados pelo Estado. De seus produtos e produtividade, os mācēhualtin eram obrigados a pagar tributos à nobreza asteca. Durante o reinado de Moctezuma II (1502-1520), eles foram proibidos de servir nos palácios reais, visto que este monarca ampliou a divisão entre os pipiltin (nobres) e os macehualtin. No entanto, antes de seu reinado, notou-se que havia alguma mobilidade, embora incomum, dentro destas classes sociais. Aqueles que se mudaram e se tornaram pipiltin eram chamados yaotequihua. Aqueles que foram postos para baixo apesar do status de nascimento como pipiltin eram chamados de pillaquistiltin. Os macehualtin também podiam se tornar ou vender seus filhos à escravidão. Essa possibilidade de mobilidade social era relativamente incomum devido à visão locativa do mundo dos astecas. Esse ponto de vista enfatizava a ideia de que todos tinham um lugar correto no mundo. Era quase um imperativo moral encontrar o lugar de alguém e estar em conformidade com suas exigências. Essa lógica se estendia à classe social, com os pipiltin sendo vistos como tendo treinado para governar o resto da sociedade e que teriam sido feitos especificamente pelos deuses astecas para esse propósito, enquanto que os macehualtin eram vistos como tendo sido feitos para trabalhar em benefício da sociedade. Rituais, ensinamentos e muitos outros aspectos da sociedade asteca ajudavam a reforçar essa visão de mundo. A desigualdade entre as classes sociais foi reforçada por instituições sociais, como um conjunto diferenciado de leis para os cidadãos comuns e os da classe alta. Esse conjunto diferenciado de leis era mais severo em relação à nobreza do que aos plebeus por um crime comparável. Como a sociedade asteca era em parte centrada na guerra, todo homem asteca recebia algum tipo de treinamento militar básico desde cedo. Tipicamente, no momento em que a criança alcançava os três anos de idade, o menino começava a receber uma instrução simples nas mãos de seu pai nas tarefas esperadas dos homens, não importando de qual classe social eles eram. A única possibilidade (extremamente pequena) de uma possível mobilidade social ascendente para os mācēhualtin era através do sucesso militar. A captura de cativos (māltin, singular mālli) marcou uma importante transição para o status de um guerreiro completo, era o caminho para os soldados subirem a escala social e continuou a ser uma fonte de honra durante a carreira de um homem guerreiro. Não levar cativos ou ter desempenho bom em batalhas apenas no final da vida seria uma fonte de desonra para os guerreiros. Enquanto isso impactaria negativamente os guerreiros que eram mācēhualtin, seria um golpe social ainda pior para os membros da nobreza, embora não fosse tão materialmente prejudicial. As crianças mācēhualtin participavam do telpochcalli (ou "casa dos jovens") a partir dos quinze anos de idade. Esta era uma escola para meninos e meninas, mas eles eram ensinados separadamente. Nos telepocais, os jovens aprenderam artes marciais e outros aspectos da guerra asteca. Eles passavam muito tempo envolvidos em trabalho físico em torno da escola e em torno da comunidade, a fim de construir a força dos jovens. Algumas atividades, como o transporte de lenha, acabaram tomando a forma de um teste de aptidão física à medida que cargas de lenha cada vez maiores eram dadas aos jovens; tais jovens teriam que enfrentar maiores encargos quando chegassem ao campo de batalha. Enquanto os jovens se preparavam para se tornarem guerreiros do Império Asteca, as jovens astecas frequentavam o cuicalco (ou "casa da canção"), uma subdivisão dos telpocaches e onde eles aprendiam sobre as artes rituais, como a dança e a música. Divisões baseadas no gênero afetavam de forma proeminente as crianças entre os mācēhualtin. Uma ênfase nas divisões de gênero começava já no nascimento, não apenas com a escolaridade. Alguns rituais iniciais diferiam entre meninos e meninas recém-nascidas. Para as crianças do sexo masculino, ações simbólicas, como dar o cordão umbilical a guerreiros para enterrar em campos onde as batalhas poderiam ocorrer, enfatizavam seu papel como futuros guerreiros. Para as crianças do sexo feminino, ações simbólicas, como enterrar o cordão umbilical próximo à lareira, enfatizavam o papel feminino no lar.eira, enfatizavam o papel feminino no lar.
|
| rdfs:comment |
Macehualli (Nahuatl mācēhualli, Plural: mā … Macehualli (Nahuatl mācēhualli, Plural: mācēhualtin) war bei den Azteken und ihren Nahuatl sprechenden Nachbarn die Bezeichnung für die freien Bauern, die den Hauptteil der Bevölkerung bildeten. Die Etymologie der Bezeichnung ist dunkel, eine Verbindung mit dem Begriff ma’cēhualli, Verdienst, ist wegen der unterschiedlichen Lautung ausgeschlossen. unterschiedlichen Lautung ausgeschlossen.
, Mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], tunggal … Mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], tunggal mācēhualli [maːseːˈwalli]) adalah rakyat jelata di peradaban Aztek. Orang-orang yang tergolong ke dalam kelas sosial mācēhualtin adalah para petani di pedesaan yang merupakan mayoritas rakyat jelata di Aztek. Mācēhualtin menggarap tanah yang dimiliki oleh satuan sosial yang disebut chinampa. Tanaman-tanaman yang dipanen oleh para petani ini adalah jagung, kacang dan labu. Mācēhualtin diwajibkan membayar upeti dari hasil panen mereka kepada bangsawan Aztek.hasil panen mereka kepada bangsawan Aztek.
, Un « macehualli » (pl. « macehualtin » ; s … Un « macehualli » (pl. « macehualtin » ; s'orthographie également sans H) est un mot nahuatl désignant, dans la société aztèque, un membre de la classe sociale la plus basse hormis celle des esclaves. Ils ne bénéficiaient pas des mêmes privilèges que les familles de dignitaires (« tetecuhtin » et « pipiltin »), les négociants (« pochteca »), les prêtres, les militaires ni les artisans (« tolteca », « » et « »).ni les artisans (« tolteca », « » et « »).
, Os mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], sing … Os mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaltin], singular mācēhualli [maːseːˈwalli]) eram a classe social mais comum no Império Asteca. Esta classe asteca era formada por agricultores rurais, formando a maioria dos plebeus do império. Os macahualtin trabalhavam em terras que pertenciam à unidade social dos calpulli, denominada chinampas, com cada família mantendo os direitos à terra desde que não ficasse no local por mais de dois anos. Dentro dessas terras, os mācēhualtin construíam pequenas represas e terraços para aumentar seu rendimento agrícola. Culturas comuns à agricultura asteca eram cultivadas nesses lotes, como milho, feijão e abóbora. Estes cultivos provavelmente eram organizados pelas comunidades locais e não eram liderados pelo Estado. De seus produtos e produtividade, os mācēhualtin eramdutos e produtividade, os mācēhualtin eram
, En la sociedad azteca, los macehualli (o m … En la sociedad azteca, los macehualli (o macehuame, en plural) eran la clase social que estaba por encima de los esclavos y jerárquicamente estaban por debajo de los nobles. Los macehualtin rendían servicio militar, pagaban impuestos y trabajaban en obras colectivas. Como los esclavos, también podían poseer bienes, casarse con personas libres, tener hijos libres, teniendo una relativa libertad. Tenían derecho a poseer una parcela de tierra siempre y cuando la cultivasen, la cual podrían heredar sus hijos si estos de igual forma la trabajaban. Lo que no podían hacer era enajenarla o darla en prenda de otro bien, pues en realidad eran propietarios por segunda vez de la parcela.opietarios por segunda vez de la parcela.
, Een macehualli (meervoud: macehualtin) was … Een macehualli (meervoud: macehualtin) was bij de Azteken een persoon dat niet tot de oftewel de adel behoorde. Het woord macehualli komt uit het Nahuatl. Het is afgeleid van het werkwoord macehualo, en betekent "degene die werkt". De macehualtin vormden niet de laagste stand in de Azteeks hiërarchie. Onder hen stonden de , personen die niet tot een calpulli behoorden.sonen die niet tot een calpulli behoorden.
, The mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaɬˈtin], si … The mācēhualtin (IPA: [maːseːˈwaɬˈtin], singular mācēhualli [maːseːˈwalːi]) were the commoner social class in Aztec society. The Aztec social class of the mācēhualtin were rural farmers, forming the majority of the commoners in the Aztec Empire. The mācēhualtin worked lands that belonged to the social unit of the calpolli called chinampas, with each family maintaining rights to the land so long as it did not lie fallow for more than two years. Within these lands, the rural mācēhualtin constructed small dams and terraces to increase their agricultural yield. Crops common to Mexican agriculture were grown on these plots, including maize, beans and squash. These projects were probably organized by the local communities and were not state led. From their produce and productivity, the mācēhualtir produce and productivity, the mācēhualt
|
